International Baccalaureate: Design & Technology
Option F: Invention, Innovation and Design
The pace of technological development is always accelerating. Many interesting inventions fail to become innovations due to unfavourable social, economic and political conditions. Innovations that do succeed may have negative effects as well as positive ones. This option looks at the conditions that allow successful innovation and the influence of design in promoting the continuation of the innovation. It is also concerned with the role of individuals in the innovation cycle and strategies for the implementation of innovation along with the impact of innovation on consumerism and the environment.
F.1 Invention and Innovation
F.1.1
Define invention and innovation
F.1.2
Discuss the importance of science to invention. Scientific research uncovers new possibilities for a product or process.
F.1.3
Explain why the majority of inventions fail to become innovations. Consider marketability, financial support, marketing, the need for the invention and price.
F.1.4
Outline the stages of innovation. Developing an idea into a viable product; its production, marketing and sales; followed by redesign—and the cycle or spiral continues.
F.1.5
Explain the relevance of design to innovation. For continued innovation (re-innovation), products and processes are constantly updated (re-designed) to make them more commercially viable and to give consumers choice and improved products.
F.1.6
Define dominant design, diffusion into the marketplace, market pull and technology push.
F.1.7
Explain why it is difficult to determine whether market pull or technology push is the impetus for the design of new products. “Push” and “Pull” are present in most successful innovations. The explanation should apply only to the first origin of the idea or where the idea appears to have been generated.
F.2.1
F.2.2
Discuss why it is becoming increasingly difficult to be a successful lone inventor. Most products are now quite complex and rely on expertise from various disciplines. The amount of investment required is often too much for one individual.
F.2.3
Explain why lone inventors often find it difficult to work in the design departments of large companies. They are often used to setting their own targets rather than working as a member of a team. They can be dogmatic in their methodology and less flexible than team workers.
F.2.4
F.2.5
Compare the lone inventor with the product champion. The lone inventor might lack the business acumen to push the invention through to innovation. The product champion is often a forceful personality with much influence in a company. He/she is more astute at being able to push the idea through the various business channels and is often able to consider the merits of the invention more objectively.
F.2.6
F.2.7
Explain why entrepreneurs may have difficulty in obtaining financial support for an invention. Most people with money to invest will be inclined to wait until it is clearer whether or not an invention is going to be successful before investing— part of the task of the entrepreneur is to get them to take the risk.
F.2.8
State that Thomas Edison was an example of an inventor–entrepreneur
F.2.9
Outline the stages in Edison’s invention of the electric light bulb.
1878—idea for an incandescent lamp from a new kind of generator which had been developed to power a small arc light system. Experimented with materials for the filament to find one which would permit a bright glow without burning up too quickly.
1879—first working model (thread of carbonized cotton bent into the shape of a horse shoe and mounted inside a glass vacuum bulb). Worked on a refinement for better vacuums, improved generators and distribution systems.
1880—first full-scale use of electric light on the steamship Columbia.
1881—first commercial installation of complete electric light system (Hinds, Ketcham & Co, New York).
F.2.10
Explain why Edison is considered an inventor–entrepreneur. His reputation for commercially successful inventions was so high that within a few weeks of announcing his intention to develop electric lighting financiers were clamouring to invest.
F.2.11
State one other example of an invention by Edison. For example, the phonograph.
F.2.12
State one example of an incremental design based on Edison’s incandescent lamp. For example, the fluorescent lamp or halogen lamp.
F.3 Innovation in Practice—the Bicycle
Students will not be expected to know all the historical details of the bicycle’s evolution but should be aware of the scientific principles and technological developments that were important in creating the original invention, and the socio-economic considerations that allowed the invention to become a successful innovation. Attention should be paid to how the original design has changed giving the product much wider appeal than initially expected.
F.3.1
Discuss how scientific inventions were important in the development of the bicycle (including wheels, gearing, brake systems, steering and chain systems).
Basic understanding is required of the key scientific inventions which later underpinned technological developments—these inventions were created for their own sake and not necessarily linked to the product in focus.
F.3.2
Discuss how technological developments (materials, processes and production systems) were important in the development of the bicycle.
An understanding is required of how technological developments provided designers with the opportunity to re-arrange components, devise new forms of assembly and use new materials. Include tyres, frames, suspensions, alloys, carbon fibres, manufacturing techniques, and mass
production and/or automation.
F.3.3
Discuss how social and economic demands were important in the development of the bicycle as a successful innovation (including ergonomics, aesthetics, environmental considerations, fashion, planned obsolescence, health and lifestyle influences). Only a minority of inventions become innovations because success depends on the economic and social conditions being exactly right.
Creating inventions is usually the least expensive part of the innovation process; developing these ideas into a marketable device or system is much more expensive. An innovation is, initially, rarely very important to society and for it to have any significant impact the innovation has to be adopted by a large number of individuals and organizations. Apart from the characteristics of the innovation itself, the nature of the market into which it is being sold is important. Many innovations fail because they are inconsistent with existing values, skills and the past experiences of the potential consumers.
F.4.1
Define technophile, technocautious and technophobe
F.4.2
Explain why people can be broadly classified according to their reactions to technological change (refer to issues of morality or ethics, security and privacy, and economic circumstances). People’s reactions to technological change vary depending on their values and personal circumstances. First order effects and second order effects should be taken into account, eg personal gains in owning a motor car versus social and environmental considerations.
F.4.3
Discuss why there is often resistance to innovation by companies. Research and development is expensive. Innovation involves disturbance and change and so tends to be resisted by individuals within organizations.
F.4.4
F.4.5
State that large companies develop some form of corporate strategy for innovation.
F.4.6
Discuss the corporate strategy referred to as “pioneering”. Pioneering means being ahead of competitors by introducing a new product first. It is the most risky (costly) strategy but one with potential for large gains.
F.4.7
Discuss the corporate strategy referred to as “imitative”. The imitative strategy aims to develop a product similar to the “pioneered” product as quickly as possible. It takes advantage of research and development invested by others and is less risky, but is based on a strong development capability.
F.4.8
Discuss the Sony Walkman™ as an example of “pioneering” innovation. Include strong research and development from a company already successful and financially secure and a forceful “product champion” in the president, Akio Morita.
F.4.9
Discuss the development of many “imitative” personal stereo innovations following from the Sony Walkman™ of 1979. Compare the design of the various examples with the original innovation and, in doing so, consider the advantages and disadvantages of “pioneering” and “imitative” strategies.
F.4.10
Describe two examples where technological innovations have been abused (one example should be nuclear energy). Technical innovations sometimes have negative aspects. The scale of social and economic disruption likely to be involved means that it might be prudent to slow down the technological change to give society time to adjust and to control the ever-escalating process of technological competition.
F.5 Invention, Innovation and the Environment
F.5.1
State that technological innovation can make a major contribution to safeguarding the environment by replacing damaging processes and products with environmentally more benign ones.
F.5.2
State that some companies have decided to adopt pro-active environmental policies to avoid problems and regulations that may emerge in the future.
F.5.3
Explain the criteria for a pro-active environmental policy for a company. Consider the environmental factors from the design brief and specifications onwards; life-cycle analysis; environmental factors considered together with all other factors (design, marketing, manufacturing); and balancing environmental factors against performance, cost and appearance.
F.6 The Designer in the Global Marketplace
F.6.1
Explain the increased importance of market research in establishing the design need in the global marketplace. With such a large market the risks of being unsuccessful are great. Consider various cultures and attitudes from different parts of the world.
F.6.2
State two conditions that allow for sustainability of innovation in a global society. Include easy and fast travel; rapid communication system; or economic and trading arrangements that allow fast international movement of money, people and goods across national boundaries without hindrance. For sustainability these conditions have to apply not just for each individual project, but to all goods and services produced and consumed by the world’s population.
F.6.3
Discuss the increased responsibilities of designers in the global marketplace. Responsibilities are on a much larger scale. Consider the environment, quality control, safety and people’s needs.
F.6.4
Explain the contribution development of new technologies has made to the pace of innovation. More research and development leads to more innovation, eg more materials and manufacturing techniques.
F.6.5
State that as the pace of innovation increases the product life cycle decreases.
F.6.6
Discuss the issues associated with controlling innovation on a global scale. Include crossing national boundaries; world-wide policing and monitoring; differing cultures, legislation and values; power of large organizations; and costs involved.
F.7 Global Strategies for Innovation
F.7.1
State that companies adopt a variety of strategies for innovation.
F.7.2
Define market penetration, market development, product development and diversification
F.7.3
Outline a different example of innovation for each of the strategies defined in F.7.2.
For example: market penetration (advertising an existing product), market development (nylon was originally developed for parachutes), product development (replacing mechanical with microelectronic controls in domestic products) and diversification (different types of electrical plugs).
F.7.4
State that most companies adopt different innovation strategies at different times and in different circumstances.
F.7.5
Define market sector and market segmentation
F.7.6
Discuss two ways in which markets may be segmented. Income, age group, lifestyle, geographical location, etc.
F.7.7
Define robust design and design family
F.7.8
Explain an example of a robust design which evolved into a product family. Such as the mobile phone or personal stereo.
F.8.1
State that the global consumer has access to an ever-widening range of products.
F.8.2
Explain the circumstances which allow for the statement in F.8.1. For example, Internet shopping.
F.8.3
Discuss two advantages and two disadvantages of global shopping for consumers.
Advantages—increased choice, more information on products, no hard sell from sales staff, cheaper products and access any time and any day.
Disadvantages—difficulty of returning faulty goods, no direct dialogue with sales staff, and time scale between ordering and delivering.
F.8.4
Outline the effects of global consumerism on national culture. Include breakdown of shopping centres and town centres, cross-cultural influences, one global culture, the effect on traditions (eg buying from the local market) and global legislation ignoring national cultural values.
F.8.5
Discuss the issues surrounding global consumerism for developed and developing countries.
Developed—increased wealth as the major providers of the communications systems and products, increased power with global influence and increased responsibility (eg sustainability).
Developing—distribution systems, reliability of computer links, political stability, dominance of western culture, environmental impact, high expectations of consumers and trade regulations.
F.8.6
Describe the benefits of global shopping for people with disabilities.
Include greater access to information and products, reduced need for a carer to help with shopping, no transport requirements, assistance with communication and being in control of the situation, ie no problems with access to shops.