International Baccalaureate: Design & Technology
Topic 1: Designers and the Design Cycle
The design cycle is central to a student’s understanding of design activities and to organizing his/her own investigation work. Each element of the design cycle represents how designers progress through the design process with the design solution becoming progressively more refined at increasingly specific levels of detail.
This topic focuses on the strategies designers employ to arrive at a solution to a problem and the varied nature of the skills and knowledge they need to carry out their activities successfully.
1.1.1
The design brief is the formal starting point for the design of a new product. It is a statement of what the product is expected to do. The brief does not provide the design solution, but is a statement of the design problem and sets:
• the design goal (eg a working prototype to be evaluated in terms of its feasibility for volume production)
• the target market for the product (eg children, disabled adults)
• the major constraints (eg should comply with new legislation, have fewer working parts, be cheaper to manufacture) within which it must be achieved
• the criteria by which a good design proposal may be achieved (eg increased value for money and/or cost-effectiveness for manufacture).
1.1.2
Developing the specification from the brief is an evolving process, initially generating a specification following the brief, and culminating in a final product design specification (PDS). The PDS states and justifies the more precise limits set for the complete range of performance
requirements. The PDS will identify demands (requirements or features which must be met) and wishes (requirements which should be met if it proves technically or economically feasible). The specification will include a full list of the criteria against which the design can be evaluated.
1.1.3
Explain the role of the designer in the design process.
The designer’s role varies depending on the complexity of the process and the intended outcome.
1.1.4
Describe how designers interact with others and how the emphasis of the design process varies depending on the designer’s role. Designers often work as members of a team. Priorities will vary depending on the nature of the activity, eg the information required by an architect will be different to that required by an engineer.
1.1.5
Describe how designers rely upon knowledge from science, philosophy and technology.
Science explains how the world is. Philosophy concerns values, culture, politics and aesthetics. Technology includes materials, manufacturing techniques and processes.
1.1.6
1.1.7
1.1.8
Explain how design work is often a combination of incremental and radical thinking.
For example, the use of a new material for a product may be a radical leap forward but the product may look very similar to previous products—a tennis racquet made from carbon fibre is a radical development but the shape and form are similar to previous designs.
1.2.1
State that designers use design cycle models to represent the design process.
Design may be described in a variety of ways and degrees of complexity, eg the IB simple design cycle (see 1.2.2, Fig 1) or IB elaborated design cycle (see 1.3.3, Fig 2). The design process usually consists of successive stages that form a systematic, cyclical process which eventually converges to produce a solution to the problem.
1.2.2
Draw the IB simple design cycle.
The IB simple design cycle (see Fig 1) consists of the following stages.
(i) Identifying the problem and the brief
The context of the problem is described and a concise brief stated. The initial design problem is a loose collection of constraints, requirements and possibilities. From this loose collection the designer has to make a coherent pattern. The design brief states the intended outcome and the major constraints within which it must be achieved.
(ii) Researching and specifications
Sources of information are identified and strategies developed for gaining the information. The specifications state all the detailed aspects which the final solution should conform to. There usually needs to be some interaction between writing the design specification and generating ideas because many details of the specifications will be dependent upon the type of ideas.
(iii) Generating ideas
Divergent thinking is used to consider ways in which a problem may be solved. The starting point for the generation of ideas should be the design specification and proposals should be evaluated against this specification with evidence of relevant research used to rate the ideas in terms of their usefulness. A variety of approaches should be used and different possibilities explored and analysed before deciding on the most suitable solution.
(iv) Developing the chosen solution
A final concept is developed taking into account the conflicting needs of the manufacturer and the user, and the requirement of the design as set out in the specifications. A complete proposal is developed based upon the research and the designer’s personal ideas.
(v) Planning and realizing the chosen solution
Planning includes factors such as detail drawings (of a style relevant to the task), material lists and costings, as well as a plan for realizing the design in an efficient manner. The appropriate level of skills and knowledge to arrive at the final outcome need to be identified and matched to the resources available and the timescale involved.
(vi) Testing and evaluating the chosen solution
The final outcome is tested and evaluated against the requirements set out in the specification. Recommendations for modifications to the design are made. A reiteration process should now begin.
Each of the elements (i) to (vi) in the cycle contribute to the process inherent in design technology and constitute a holistic approach. Any given element should therefore be viewed in the context of the whole process. Throughout the design technology course, the principles of design are emphasized in a range of contexts which are intended to broaden as the student progresses through the course. The student, as a consequence, grows more confident in the application of such principles to a range of problems.
1.2.3
Describe each element in the IB simple design cycle
1.2.4
Explain why the IB simple design cycle is not linear, and why it is iterative in practice.
The cycle indicates that the process is ongoing. A designer usually finds it necessary to recycle through the procedure until s/he is satisfied with the solutions obtained (iteration). Not all the steps will need to be altered or revisited.
1.2.5
Describe the overlap between each element in the cycle when it is applied holistically to a design situation.
In practice it is impossible to separate the stages of the design process as clearly as the model suggests.
1.2.6
Explain why elements of the model may differ in importance according to the particular design context.
Depending upon the nature of the problem, not all the elements of the cycle carry the same weight in terms of time allocation and complexity. Points to consider include cost, resources, skills, time, original design specification and product modification.
1.3.1
Outline three limitations of the IB simple design cycle.
The model suggests that one activity starts only after the previous activity has finished but when the design is looked at in detail it is not clear that the process can still be generalized across the different design vocations.
1.3.2
Compare the IB simple design cycle with more complex versions used by professional designers. Refer to the IB elaborated design cycle (see Fig 2). A wide variety of more complex models are available, and these split up the process into more diverse elements.
1.3.3
Explain why the simplified version of the DCM must be modified to make it representative of design thought and action.
The more elaborate model has been included to emphasize that designing is not a linear process. Evaluation, for example, will take place at various stages of the process not just at the end. Similarly, ideas for possible solutions are not only generated at stage (iii); some good ideas may
develop even as early as identification of the problem (i).
1.4.1
State that designers use a variety of techniques to develop ideas.
1.4.2
Define constructive discontent.
1.4.3
Describe the relevance of constructive discontent for designers. Creative designers are frequently dissatisfied with what exists and want to make the situation better.
1.4.4
If a problem is in a new context a solution may be found by finding something similar from another context and adapting it.
1.4.5
Describe the relevance of adaptation for designers
1.4.6
1.4.7
Describe the relevance of analogies to designers. Odd, remote or strange analogies help to stimulate the mind in new ways, eg “cat’s eyes” in the middle of the road or sonar based on communication between marine animals.
1.4.8
Participants use the ideas of others to spark off their own ideas and to build upon and combine ideas to produce new ones. No criticism is allowed, even of the most ridiculous ideas.
1.4.9
Describe the relevance of brainstorming to designers
1.4.10
1.4.11
1.4.12
Describe the elements of the DCM that reflect convergent and divergent thinking. Convergent thinking is analytical and solution focused, eg used at the research stage and during evaluation. Divergent thinking is conceptual and problem focused, eg used at the ideas generating phase and during development.
1.4.13
State that the design process is a balance between divergent thinking and convergent thinking at different stages in the design process and in different design contexts. Designers need to be innovative (they need to come up with original ideas) but they also need to work to a brief and provide a marketable solution. Contrast fashion design with engineering design, for example.
1.5.1
Consider the purpose of the drawings and techniques. Compare two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) drawing techniques.
1.5.2
1.5.3
Explain the relevance to designers of 2D and 3D freehand drawings. Designers use a range of freehand drawings in the early stages of developing ideas to explore shape and form (3D) and constructional details (2D).
1.5.4
Describe the importance of annotating freehand drawings. Annotations explain the thinking behind the visual image represented by the drawing. They allow the designer to consider the implications of the ideas for further development.
1.5.5
1.5.6
Explain the purpose of an orthographic drawing. An orthographic drawing shows details and dimensions and can be used as a production drawing.
1.5.7
Identify the stage of the design process where orthographic drawing is relevant.
Orthographic drawings are produced at the final solution stage and are used as working drawings for the realization stage.
1.5.8
1.5.9
Explain the purpose of an isometric drawing. An isometric drawing depicts the proposed solution in 3D showing shape and form.
1.5.10
Define exploded isometric drawing.
1.5.11
Explain the purpose of an exploded isometric drawing. The drawing is exploded to show particular features of the inside of the design.
1.5.12
1.5.13
Explain the purpose of perspective drawing. Compare perspective drawings with isometric drawings. Perspective drawings take into account spatial arrangements, eg foreshortening, while isometric drawings are constructed to a set angle (60° to the horizontal).
1.5.14
State that models are representations of reality.
1.5.15
Explain that a model represents selected features of a design.
1.5.16
Explain the difference between physical models and mathematical models. Physical models are made from raw materials and can be handled. Mathematical models use symbols that can be manipulated numerically.
1.5.17
Outline the advantages and disadvantages of physical and mathematical models. Consider the skills and knowledge required and the involvement of clients or users.
1.5.18
1.5.19
Define an algorithm to communicate a process. Correct sequencing is important with input, output and feedback.
1.5.20
Draw a simple flow chart using symbols. Correct use of symbols to represent activities is important.
1.5.21
Analyse a flow chart.
1.5.22
Describe three advantages of using models as part of the design process.
Designers use models for particular purposes, eg designers of prestige cars may use a full-size clay model of a car at the final concept stage of the design process because at full-size it gives a more realistic view of the intended design and clay allows the shape to be changed easily.
1.5.23
Describe three limitations of the use of models in the design process.
Designers can easily make assumptions about how accurately a model is representing reality, eg the model may not work like the final product or be made of the same material.
1.5.24
Define computer-aided design (CAD).
1.5.25
State two advantages and two disadvantages of using computer-aided design (CAD) instead of traditional drawing methods. Consider the skills required, storage, complexity and styles of the drawings, interfacing with other aspects of ICT, time, cost and the purpose of the drawings.
1.5.26
Explain why designers use a variety of drawing and modelling techniques to represent ideas. Refer to the design process and how designers communicate, both with themselves and other people.